Timeline of Sources

Exercises of the Pupils of the NY Institution for the Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb

Educators teach sign language at the “New York Institution for the Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb”

Survey of Blackwell’s Island

An educator for the deaf brought three boys from the blind ward on Blackwell’s Island to be educated in Manhattan in the first New York school for the blind.

The Idiot School

1867

A school for disabled students operated on Randall’s Island.

Map of Randall’s, Hart, and Blackwell Islands

1883

Social welfare reformers created institutions for the poor like hospitals, almshouses, asylums for orphans and people with disabilities, and housing for immigrants on islands away from the city.

Cisco on Trial in Queens

Sep 3, 1896

Samuel B. Cisco is charged with violating truancy laws after refusing to send his children to a segregated school.

People ex rel. Cisco v. School Board of Queens, excerpt

Jan 9, 1900

After her husband passes away, Mrs. Elizabeth Cisco continues the fight against segregation in the courts.

The Elsberg Bill Signed

Apr 20, 1900

New York’s state legislature ends legal segregation in schools

Mrs. Elizabeth Cisco

undated

Mrs. Elizabeth Cisco sits for a studio portrait.

Albany Evening Journal

May 10, 1900

Elizabeth Cisco is recognized for her role in ending legal segregation.

Elizabeth Farrell and Ungraded Classes

undated

Elizabeth Farrell teaches a classroom of children with intellectual disabilities in an “ungraded class.”

Public School 47

undated, c. 1908

New York City opened its first public school for Deaf children.

New York City’s Schools and What They Cost

Sep 13, 1908

The New York Times published a feature article about the complex NYC school system. The city struggled to accommodate all students as enrollment increased in part because of compulsory education laws and bans on child labor.

Testimony to the Uniform Type Committee

Mar 25, 1909

The NYC Board of Education held a hearing to decide between different types of tactile type to be the standard for New York City Schools.

Delinquent Girls Tested by the Binet Scale, excerpt

1911

Henry Goddard writes about the use of intelligence tests for “delinquent girls.”

The Feeble Minded in New York, excerpts

1911

Parents withdraw their children from the school on Randall’s Island.

The Binet-Simon Scale, excerpt

1914

American psychologists adapt Alfred Binet’s intelligence test for use in schools.

Army Beta Test and Results

1917

US Army gives its soldiers intelligence tests.

The Brownies’ Book, January 1920, excerpts

January 1920

W.E.B. DuBois and the NAACP launch the children’s magazine The Brownie’s Book.

Survey of Cripples in New York City, excerpt

1920

Charities and hospitals caring for children who became disabled by polio conduct a citywide survey.

The Brownies’ Book, February 1920, cover

February 1920

The Brownie’s Book prints its second issue.

The Brownie’s Book, April 1920, letters from readers

April 1920

The Brownie’s Book’s readers write back to the magazine.

Race Intelligence, excerpt

July 1920

DuBois criticizes intelligence testing in The Crisis.

Chart of Inmates in the State Institutions

January 1921

An annual report for the New York State Board of Charities shows the number of “inmates” that lived in state institutions like reformatories and state schools.

Two Public School Teachers

March 1925

The Survey Graphic publishes a special issue about art and intellectual life in Harlem, edited by Alain Locke.

Two Public School Teachers

March, 1925

The Survey Graphic publishes a special issue about art and intellectual life in Harlem, edited by Alain Locke.

Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters Rally Posters

1926 & 1937

The Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters

Wadleigh’s School Zone

c.1930s-1940s

The NYC Board of Education draws school zones to segregate Wadleigh as an all-Black school.

Mayor LaGuardia’s Commission on the Harlem Riot, excerpt

Jul 18, 1936

Mayor LaGuardia forms a commission to study the root causes of the 1935 “Harlem Riot.”

The Role of the School in a Housing Program for the Community

undated, c. late 1930s

Benjamin Franklin High School students advocate for better housing for their East Harlem community.

Children Participating in a Public Campaign

undated, c. 1941-1945

Benjamin Franklin high school students participate in a war-time effort to conserve paper.

Club Borinquen

undated, c. 1940s-1950s

Benjamin Franklin High School students participate in “Club Borinquen” to celebrate their Puerto Rican identity.

Jim Crow School Kids as Mentally Unfit

May 25, 1946

Queens parents criticize assignment of Black students to classes for the “mentally retarded”

NAACP Youth Council News Bulletin, excerpts

December 1947

NAACP Youth Council’s publication, The Challenge, describes activism against segregation.

Your Child and Willowbrook, excerpt

October 1947

Willowbrook State School opens as the largest state institution of its kind in the United States.

AHRC First Fundraising Billboard

1951

Parents of children with intellectual and developmental disabilities come together to create day programs for their children, who were shut out of the public school system.

We Kept Our Retarded Child At Home, excerpt

Nov 1, 1955

In the 1950s, children with intellectual disabilities could be excluded from public schools despite laws that required children to attend schools

Check Your School!

undated, c.1956

NAACP distributes questionnaire to Black and Puerto Rican families about school segregation.

Commission on Integration, Subcommittee on Zoning Draft Report, excerpt

Mar 2, 1956

The Board of Education appoints a Commission on Integration to study racial segregation in New York City schools and make recommendations for integrating them.

Jansen Must Go!

July 1957

Harlem community members call on Superintendent William Jansen to resign.

Camp Jened - Real Camping for the Handicapped, cover

undated, c. mid-1950s to early 1960s

A brochure advertised Camp Jened to disabled teens and adults around the country

Memorandum to Counselors

undated

Camp Jened helped its counselors learn to support disabled campers.

Camp Scholarships Will be Awarded to Handicapped Adults

undated

United Cerebral Palsy spreads the word about Camp Jened.

“We’d Rather Go to Jail.”

Dec 13, 1958

Mae Mallory, Viola Waddy and other members of the “Harlem Nine” boycott Harlem schools.

In the matter of Charlene Skipwith, excerpt

Dec 15, 1958

A judge rules in favor of parents whose children participated in the “Harlem Nine” boycott and were charged with neglect.

Mae Mallory and her daughter Patricia

undated, c. 1956-1960

During the “Harlem Nine” boycott, Mae and Patricia Mallory became the face of the struggle.

White Queens Mothers Protest Desegregation

Jun 25, 1959

When a plan to bus Black and Puerto Rican students to schools in the Glendale-Ridgewood area of Queens with all-white schools was announced, white mothers organized a protest.

A. Philip Randolph Letter to President John F. Kennedy

1963

Philip Randolph writes to President Kennedy about the upcoming March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom.

Life Magazine Cover

1963

Life magazine features A. Philip Randolph and Bayard Rustin.

Claim Teachers Used Pupils As Shoe Shine Boys: DA Calls Charges “Serious”

Dec 7, 1963

“600” School Investigated over claim teachers used pupils as shoe shine boys

A Boycott Solves Nothing

1964

An op-ed in the New York Times captures an example of white, liberal New Yorkers’ resistance to desegregation.

Why the School Boycott?

1964

Call for a boycott of New York City’s public schools to desegregate.

School Boycott!

1964

Call for a boycott of New York City’s public schools to desegregate.

Freedom School Lesson Plan, excerpt

undated, c. 1964

Ella Baker and others encouraged the establishment of Freedom Schools in the North.

Malcolm X Comments on the Boycotts

1964

Malcolm X answers questions about the boycott in this interview video.

Freedom Day March on Film

Feb 3, 1964

A silent film recorded by the New York Police Department showing protesters at Board of Education headquarters and marching during the February 3, 1964 boycott.

JHS 103, PS 194, and City Hall

Feb 8, 1964

Rallies and smaller protests took place throughout the city as part of the school boycott.

The Will and the Way of the Boycotters

Feb 8, 1964

Reporter Gertrude Wilson wrote about how women and young people worked to make the February 3 boycott happen.

What a “Fizzle!”

Feb 8, 1964

New York City schools head James Donovan called the boycott “a fizzle.”

Change the Status Crow

1964

Organizer Milton Galamison and other desegregation advocates called for a second boycott, to take place on March 16, 1964.

Puerto Rican Civil Rights March on Film

Mar 1, 1964

Puerto Rican community organizations are joined by others who are in solidarity with them marching at City Hall.

Parents and Taxpayers March to City Hall on Film

Mar 12, 1964

A group of white parents calling themselves “Parents and Taxpayers” led a march from the Board of Education building in Brooklyn to City Hall in Manhattan.

The School Boycott Concept

Apr 11, 1964

Dr. King writes about the “school boycott concept” and it’s application across the country.

Milton Galamison Oral History, excerpt

Jun 17, 1964

Galamison describes the push for educational justice.

Title IV of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, excerpt

Jul 2, 1964

President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act into law, which included a “watered down” section on school desegregation.

Parents and Taxpayers Protest and Counter-Protest on Film

Sep 24, 1964

White parents organized and protested in favor of segregation.

90% Boycott Hits Problem School

Jan 20, 1965

Galamison takes the boycott to the “600” schools

The 1965 Boycott on Film

1965

“Operation Shutdown” boycott begins, including three junior high schools and one “600” school for children labeled as “socially maladjusted” or “emotionally disturbed” The boycott continues for seven weeks.

New York Hotline: Special Ed #304, excerpt 1

Feb 26, 1966

A New York City local news show discussed special education.

New York Hotline: Special Ed #304, excerpt 2

Feb 26, 1966

A New York City student asks why students in special education are treated differently than other students.

Black Panther Party letter about OPERATION SHUT DOWN

c. August 1966

Harlem branch of the Black Panther Party organized OPERATION SHUT DOWN

“600” Schools, Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow, excerpts

September 1966

Report published on “600” Schools for NYC DOE

OPERATION SHUT DOWN flyer

undated, c. September 1966

Black Panther Party calls for Operation Shut Down to boycott Harlem schools.

Baseball

Mid-to-late 1960s

Campers play baseball at Camp Jened

Reflections - August, 1967, excerpt

August 1967

Campers at Camp Jened wrote about their experiences.

Bayard Rustin Oral History, excerpt

1969

Bayard Rustin talks about work with Phillip Randolph in 1941 and 1963.

Viva Harlem U!

1969

City College students occupy campus to call for reforms in admissions and curriculum.

We Demand

May 1969

City College student protesters outline the changes they want to see in their university.

Evelina Antonetty and United Bronx Parents Protest School Lunch

1970

United Bronx Parents protest poor quality school lunch.

¿Le gustaria que sus niños[…]?

Jan 21, 1970

United Bronx Parents encourage parents to come together to discuss bilingual education.

Denise Oliver

Nov 21, 1970

Denise Oliver becomes a leader in the Young Lords Party.

Iris Morales Leads Political Education Class

undated, c. 1969-1971

The Young Lords party creates spaces for members to study history and politics.

Palante, cover

February 1971

The Young Lords Party published a newspaper to communicate their ideas.

The Educational Needs of the Puerto Rican Child, excerpts

Mar 25, 1971

United Bronx Parents researched problems faced by Puerto Rican students in Bronx schools.

S.O. F.E.D. U.P. Handbook for the Disabled Students of Brooklyn College, CUNY, excerpt

1971

S.O.F.E.D.U.P. organizes at Brooklyn College for accessible education for disabled students.

Bernard Carabello Interview

Feb 2, 1972

Geraldo Rivera’s exposé of Willowbrook and Letchworth State Schools airs.

Mom is Worthy Opponent for State

Sep 22, 1974

The New York Daily News writes about Willie Mae Goodman’s success in keeping her daughter Marguerite at the Gouverneur Hospital and improving the care of all residents there.