Timeline of Sources

Mrs. Elizabeth Cisco sits for a studio portrait.

Albany Evening Journal

May 10, 1900

Elizabeth Cisco is recognized for her role in ending legal segregation.

Elizabeth Farrell and Ungraded Classes

undated, c. mid-1950s to early 1960s

Elizabeth Farrell teaches a classroom of children with intellectual disabilities in an “ungraded class.”

A Day’s Work in a New York Public School, excerpt

October 1902

A photographer captures an image of children in a NYC public school.

The High Tide of Immigration

1903

A political cartoon depicts anti-immigrant attitudes.

Public School 47

undated, c. 1908

New York City opens its first public school for Deaf children.

New York City’s Schools and What They Cost

Sep 13, 1908

The New York Times publishes a feature article about the complex NYC school system and its offerings for various students.

Testimony to the Uniform Type Committee

Mar 25, 1909

The NYC Board of Education holds a hearing to decide between different types of tactile type to be the standard for New York City schools.

Delinquent Girls Tested by the Binet Scale, excerpt

1911

Henry Goddard writes about the use of intelligence tests for “delinquent girls.”

The Feeble Minded in New York, excerpts

1911

Parents withdraw their children from the school on Randall’s Island.

William Maxwell

December 1912

William Maxwell serves as the first superintendent of NYC schools.

The Binet-Simon Scale, excerpt

1914

American psychologists adapt Alfred Binet’s intelligence test for use in schools.

Army Beta Test and Results

1917

The US Army gives its soldiers intelligence tests.

The Brownies’ Book, January 1920, excerpts

January 1920

W.E.B. DuBois and the NAACP launch the children’s magazine The Brownies’ Book.

Survey of Cripples in New York City, excerpt

1920

Charities and hospitals caring for children who became disabled by polio conduct a citywide survey.

The Brownies’ Book, February 1920, cover

February 1920

The Brownies’ Book prints its second issue.

The Brownies’ Book, April 1920, letters from readers

April 1920

The Brownies’ Book’s readers write back to the magazine.

Race Intelligence, excerpt

July 1920

DuBois criticizes intelligence testing in The Crisis.

Chart of Inmates in the State Institutions

January 1921

An annual report for the New York State Board of Charities shows the number of “inmates” that lived in state institutions like reformatories and state schools.

Two Public School Teachers

March, 1925

The Survey Graphic publishes a special issue about art and intellectual life in Harlem, edited by Alain Locke.

Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters Rally Posters

1926 & 1937

The Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters organizes protest rallies.

Nationality of Pupils

1931

The Board of Education counts its pupils by “nationality.”

Wadleigh’s School Zone

c.1930s-1940s

The NYC Board of Education draws school zones to segregate Wadleigh as an all-Black school.

Mayor LaGuardia’s Commission on the Harlem Riot, excerpt

Jul 18, 1936

Mayor LaGuardia forms a commission to study the root causes of the 1935 “Harlem Riot.”

Hotel Pennsylvania Meeting Learns of Harlem School Ills

Apr 17, 1937

The Survey Graphic publishes a special issue about art and intellectual life in Harlem, edited by Alain Locke.

HOLC Map and Area Description

1938

The Home Owners’ Loan Corporation produces maps intended to guide how banks make loans for home purchases.

Underwriting Manual, excerpt

1938

The Federal Housing Administration publishes guidelines for mortgage lending.

The Role of the School in a Housing Program for the Community

undated, c. late 1930s

Benjamin Franklin High School students advocate for better housing for their East Harlem community.

Children Participating in a Public Campaign

undated, c. 1941-1945

Benjamin Franklin High School students participate in a wartime effort to conserve paper.

Club Borinquen

undated, c. 1940s-1950s

Benjamin Franklin High School students participate in “Club Borinquen” to celebrate their Puerto Rican identity.

Jim Crow School Kids as Mentally Unfit

May 25, 1946

Queens parents criticize assignment of Black students to classes for the “mentally retarded”.

NAACP Youth Council News Bulletin, excerpts

December 1947

NAACP Youth Council’s publication, The Challenge, describes activism against segregation.

Your Child and Willowbrook, excerpt

October 1947

Willowbrook State School opens as the largest state institution of its kind in the United States.

AHRC First Fundraising Billboard

1951

Parents of children with intellectual and developmental disabilities come together to create day programs for their children, who were shut out of the public school system.

We Kept Our Retarded Child At Home, excerpt

Nov 1, 1955

In the 1950s, children with intellectual disabilities could be excluded from public schools despite laws that required children to attend schools.

Check Your School!

undated, c.1956

NAACP distributes a questionnaire to Black and Puerto Rican families about school segregation.

Commission on Integration, Subcommittee on Zoning Draft Report, excerpt

Mar 2, 1956

The Board of Education appoints a Commission on Integration to study racial segregation in New York City schools and make recommendations for integrating them.

Jansen Must Go!

July 1957

Harlem community members call on Superintendent William Jansen to resign.

Camp Jened - Real Camping for the Handicapped, cover

A brochure advertises Camp Jened to Disabled teens and adults around the country.

Memorandum to Counselors

Camp Jened helps its counselors learn to support Disabled campers.

Camp Scholarships Will Be Awarded to Handicapped Adults

United Cerebral Palsy spreads the word about Camp Jened.

“We’d Rather Go to Jail.”

Dec 13, 1958

Mae Mallory, Viola Waddy and other members of the “Harlem Nine” boycott Harlem schools.

In the matter of Charlene Skipwith, excerpt

Dec 15, 1958

A judge rules in favor of parents whose children participated in the “Harlem Nine” boycott and were charged with neglect.

Mae Mallory and her daughter Patricia

undated, c. 1956-1960

During the “Harlem Nine” boycott, Mae and Patricia Mallory become the face of the struggle.

White Queens Mothers Protest Desegregation

Jun 25, 1959

When a plan to bus Black and Puerto Rican students to schools in the Glendale-Ridgewood area of Queens with all-white schools is announced, white mothers organize a protest.

A. Philip Randolph Letter to President John F. Kennedy

1963

A. Philip Randolph writes to President Kennedy about the upcoming March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom.

Life Magazine Cover

1963

Life magazine features A. Philip Randolph and Bayard Rustin.

Claim Teachers Used Pupils as Shoe Shine Boys: DA Calls Charges “Serious”

Dec 7, 1963

“600” School investigated over claim teachers used pupils as shoe shine boys.

A Boycott Solves Nothing

An op-ed in The New York Times captures an example of white, liberal New Yorkers’ resistance to desegregation.

Why the School Boycott?

Call for a boycott of New York City’s public schools to desegregate.

School Boycott!

Call for a boycott of New York City’s public schools to desegregate.

Freedom School Lesson Plan, excerpt

undated, c. 1964

Ella Baker and others encourage the establishment of Freedom Schools in the North.

Malcolm X Comments on the Boycotts

undated, c. September 1966

Malcolm X answers questions about the boycott in this interview video.

Freedom Day March on Film

Feb 3, 1964

A silent film recorded by the New York Police Department showing protesters at the Board of Education headquarters and marching during the February 3, 1964 boycott.

J.H.S. 103, P.S. 194, and City Hall

Feb 8, 1964

Rallies and smaller protests take place throughout the city as part of the school boycott.

The Will and the Way of the Boycotters

Feb 8, 1964

Reporter Gertrude Wilson writes about how women and young people worked to make the February 3 boycott happen.

What a “Fizzle!”

Feb 8, 1964

New York City schools head James Donovan calls the boycott “a fizzle.”

Change the Status Crow

March 16, 1964

Organizer Milton Galamison and other desegregation advocates call for a second boycott, to take place on March 16, 1964.

Puerto Rican Civil Rights March on Film

Mar 1, 1964

Puerto Rican community organizations are joined by others who are in solidarity with them marching at City Hall.

Parents and Taxpayers March to City Hall on Film

Mar 12, 1964

A group of white parents calling themselves “Parents and Taxpayers” lead a march from the Board of Education building in Brooklyn to City Hall in Manhattan.

The School Boycott Concept

Apr 11, 1964

Dr. King writes about the “school boycott concept” and its application across the country.

Milton Galamison Oral History, excerpt

Jun 17, 1964

Galamison describes the push for educational justice.

Title IV of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, excerpt

Jul 2, 1964

President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the Civil Rights Act into law, which included a “watered down” section on school desegregation.

Parents and Taxpayers Protest and Counter-Protest on Film

Sep 24, 1964

White parents organize and protest in favor of segregation.

The Negro Family: The Case for National Action, excerpt

1965

The Moynihan Reports blames Black Americans’ culture and values for their poverty.

90% Boycott Hits Problem School

Jan 20, 1965

Galamison takes the boycott to the “600” schools.

The 1965 Boycott on Film

1965

The Operation Shut Down boycott begins, including three junior high schools and one “600” school for children labeled as “socially maladjusted” or “emotionally disturbed.” The boycott continues for seven weeks.

The Controversial Moynihan Report

Dec 18, 1965

James Farmer of CORE critiques the Moynihan Report.

Real Message of the Moynihan Report

Jan 29, 1966

Whitney Young of the National Urban League critiques the Moynihan Report.

Black Panther Party letter about Operation Shut Down

c. August 1966

The Harlem branch of the Black Panther Party organizes Operation Shut Down.

“600” Schools, Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow, excerpts

September 1966

Report published on “600” Schools for NYC DOE

Operation Shut Down Flier

The Black Panther Party calls for Operation Shut Down to boycott Harlem schools.

Baseball

Mid-to-late 1960s

Campers play baseball at Camp Jened.

A Proposal for an Independent Board of Education in Harlem

Mar 1, 1967

Harlem CORE proposes that Harlem have its own school district.

Reflections - August, 1967, excerpt

August 1967

Campers at Camp Jened write about their experiences.

City Hall; Teachers Demonstration

1968

United Federation of Teachers members march in protest.

Community Control March

1968

Community control advocates march across the Brooklyn Bridge.

Parents Speaking on Ocean Hill-Brownsville

1968

Brooklyn parents explain their support for community control.

Bayard Rustin Oral History, excerpt

Bayard Rustin talks about his work with A. Philip Randolph in 1941 and 1963.

Community Control is Not Decentralization

United Bronx Parents argue against the New York State decentralization law.

Fifteen Demands of Black and Puerto Rican Students

Black and Puerto Rican high schoolers name their demands.

Viva Harlem U!

City College students occupy campus to call for reforms in admissions and curriculum.

Program for Malcolm X Memorial Service, cover

Feb 21, 1969

I.S. 201 hosts a memorial service for Malcolm X.

We Demand

May 1969

City College student protesters outline the changes they want to see in their university.

District 21 Population Maps

1970

US Census data shows segregation in Brooklyn’s Community School District 21.

Evelina Antonetty and United Bronx Parents Protest School Lunch

1970

United Bronx Parents protest poor quality school lunch.

¿Le gustaria que sus niños[…]?

Jan 21, 1970

United Bronx Parents encourage parents to come together to discuss bilingual education.

On the Way to School - Community Control, Some Observations, excerpt

Feb 20, 1970

Preston Wilcox advocates for community control of schools.

I.S. 55 Graduation Speech

1970

Poet June Jordan speaks at a school in Brooklyn’s community control district.

Denise Oliver

Nov 21, 1970

Denise Oliver becomes a leader in the Young Lords Party.

Iris Morales Leads Political Education Class

undated, c. 1969-1971

The Young Lords party creates spaces for members to study history and politics.

Palante, cover

February 1971

The Young Lords Party publishes a newspaper to communicate their ideas.

The Educational Needs of the Puerto Rican Child, excerpts

Mar 25, 1971

United Bronx Parents researches problems faced by Puerto Rican students in Bronx schools.

S.O. F.E.D. U.P. Handbook for the Disabled Students of Brooklyn College, CUNY, excerpt

1971

S.O.F.E.D.U.P. organizes at Brooklyn College for accessible education for Disabled students.

Bernard Carabello Interview

Feb 2, 1972

Geraldo Rivera’s exposé of Willowbrook and Letchworth State schools airs.

Mark Twain on The 51st State, excerpt 1

Local journalist Richard Kotuk describes the creation of segregated white and Black neighborhoods in Coney Island.

Mark Twain on the 51st State, excerpt 2

Journalist Richard Kotuk interviews Mark Twain students and parents about school desegregation.

Mark Twain on the 51st State, excerpt 3

Mark Twain offers limited academic offerings to its Black and Puerto Rican students.

Mark Twain on The 51st State, excerpt 4

Community School District 21 proposes desegregating Mark Twain by making it a school for “gifted and talented” students.

“Hart v. Community School Board 21, excerpt 2”

Apr 2, 1974

Hart v. Community School Board 21, excerpt 1

Apr 2, 1974

Federal District Judge Jack Weinstein details how school zoning policy segregated Mark Twain Junior High School.

Clark Hits Integration Plan at Mark Twain JHS

Jul 27, 1974

Dr. Kenneth Clark denounces Mark Twain desegregation plan.

Mom is Worthy Opponent for State

Sep 22, 1974

The New York Daily News writes about Willie Mae Goodman’s success in keeping her daughter Marguerite at the Gouverneur Hospital and improving the care of all residents there.

Girls Jumping Double Dutch

Jun 2, 1976

Black girls jump Double Dutch.

Where is District 5?

Nov 6, 1976

A Harlem minister criticizes his local school district.

Statement by Martin H. Gerry, Director, Office for Civil Rights, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, excerpts

Jan 18, 1977

The US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare investigates discrimination in NYC schools.

Goldie Chu

Aug 27, 1977

Chinese American activist Goldie Chu participates in community control of schools.

Jose P. vs. Ambach, excerpt

Feb 1, 1979

New York City parents file suit to get access to schooling for Disabled students.

Parents Protest for School Transportation

March 1979

Parents and children protest for transportation to school for Disabled students during a 3-month bus driver strike.

Willie Mae Goodman and Marguerite Goodman